Encyclopedia

This interactive encyclopedia offers teachers and students access to terms, people, and events related to the history of Slavery in America. Many entries include reference material and some of the biographies on prominent figures contain suggestions for teaching as well as links to related sections of this site. The encyclopedia will continue to grow throughout the course of this project.

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Hale v. Kentucky: [1938] A Supreme Court case that overturned the conviction of a black man accused of murder because the lower court had systematically excluded blacks from jury service in the case. It was one of a series of similar cases in which the Supreme Court had overturned convictions of blacks for reason of jury discrimination in the lower courts. The decision was unanimous on the basis that the plaintiff's civil rights had been violated. Joe Hale, an African American, had been convicted in McCracken County, where no blacks had been members of a jury within the past 50 years although nearly 7,000 were eligible for jury service. NAACP counsel, including Charles H. Houston and Thurgood Marshall, represented Hale.

Hampton University: A school originally geared to provide education and industrial training to freedmen in Hampton, Virginia, at the end of the Civil War--under General Benjamin Butler, Fort Monroe in Hampton provided safe quarters to thousands of contraband runaway slaves--so they could become self-reliant and self-supporting citizens. General Samuel Chapman Armstrong, the son of missionaries and an officer of Negro troops and with the Freedmen's Bureau, conceived of the school when he was put in charge of the thousands of newly emancipated slaves flooding into Hampton. With the aid of the Freedmen's Bureau and the American Missionary Association, Armstrong converted old hospital wards at Fort Monroe into schoolrooms and opened Hampton Normal & Agricultural Institute on April 1, 1868. Armstrong's vision centered on industrial and agricultural training for its male and female students. Courses included farming, brick-making, and household work. The school's most famous 1881 graduate, Booker T. Washington, carried many of Armstrong's ideas into his own Tuskegee Institute. In 1870, the Virginia Legislature chartered Hampton, making it an independent and private institution. Hampton added an education program for Native Americans in 1878, which survived until 1923. The previous year, Hampton awarded its first baccalaureate degrees and changed its name to Hampton Institute; in 1984, it adopted a university curriculum. Today, the school enrolls over 4,700 students, offers bachelor's degrees in 38 programs, master's degrees in 14 programs, and four doctoral programs. Its university archives contain the George Foster Peabody Collection of Negro History and Literature and the Hampton University Archives (4 million items).

Hampton-Tuskegee Idea: Often described as the ideological antithesis of the educational and social movement begun by ex-slaves and promulgated by W. E. B Du Bois, the Hampton-Tuskegee Idea steered students away from the traditional study of the liberal arts to the study of industry and agriculture. This idea found its primary spokesmen in Booker T. Washington and Samuel Chapman Armstrong, and was reflected in the organization and programs at Hampton College and Tuskegee Institute. They contended that the development of the South and its oppressed blacks depended on the obtainment of practical skills by the African-American farming and working classes. Once acquired, blacks could raise their status and the position of the region through hard work, democracy, and practical knowledge. In addition, Washington preached that the advancement of African Americans toward political and social equality, at least for the time being, should be abandoned as a means of convincing whites that black Americans offered no threat to their social or political hegemony. The Hampton-Tuskegee idea was heavily supported by northern philanthropists.

Handy, William Christopher: (1873-1958) The son of a minister, Handy learned the basics of music in public schools. At 18, he ran away from home to St, Louis, holding various jobs and practicing his trumpet. He studied at Kentucky Musical College and, in 1896, became bandmaster of Mahara's Minstrels, touring the U.S., Canada, Mexico, and Cuba. In 1909, he wrote a piece of music for Memphis political boss E. H. "Boss" Crump, entitled "Mr. Crump." He later changed the name of the song to "Memphis Blues" and published it in 1912. He formed the Pace and Handy Music Company in 1913 and published the "St. Louis Blues" the next year. In 1928, he directed a concert at Carnegie Hall entitled "History of Music," using African Americans to portray the history and development of African-American music forms. He wrote over 150 secular and sacred musical compositions, including "Beale Street Blues" (1917), and founded the Handy Foundation for the Blind before his death in 1958. In his lifetime he was know as the Father of the Blues, which was also the title of his autobiography published in 1941.

Hare, Maud Cuney: (1874-1936) Best known as a musical historian for her seminal work, Negro Musicians and Their Music, Maud Cuney Hare was also a musician and a playwright. The daughter of Norris Wright Cuney, a powerful post-Reconstruction politician, and Adelina Dowdy a gifted pianist and soprano, Cuney Hare attended the New England Conservatory of Music in 1890, when she was sixteen years old. Asked to find alternative housing because of her race, Cuney Hare's father adamantly refused to move his daughter stating, "You request my cooperation in surrendering to the demands of prejudice by withdrawing my daughter; I cannot help you." After graduation, Cuney Hare returned to Texas where she directed the music program at the Texas Deaf, Dumb, and Blind Institute. Other faculty appointments followed in Chicago and Prairie View, Texas. But in 1906, she returned to Boston and married William P. Hare and made the area her permanent home. A collector of folk songs and dances, she traveled throughout Central America documenting the African roots of indigenous music. She was a regular columnist and contributor to The Crisis magazine as well as the Christian Science Monitor, Musical America and Musical Observer. In Boston she founded the Musical Art Studio and directed her play Antar of Araby (1929). She edited an anthology of nature poems and penned her father's biography, Norris Wright Cuney: A Tribune of the Black People. A concert pianist and singer, she traveled widely performing and lecturing on black music. One month after the publication of her most famous work documenting the African-American arts movement in America in 1936, Maud Cuney Hare died in Boston.

Harlan, John Marshall: (1833-1911) A Supreme Court justice who spoke out strongly against racial discrimination in his eloquent dissent in Plessy v. Ferguson, even though he was born in Kentucky to pro-slavery parents and had been a slave owner, himself. His opinion that the Constitution is "color-blind" served as the basis for desegregation arguments used to overthrow Plessy in the 1950s. Before that decision, Harlan dissented in the Civil Rights Cases of 1883. In these cases, the Supreme Court held invalid Sections 1 and 2 of the 1875 Civil Rights Act. The Court also ruled that the denial of accommodations to African Americans in hotels, theaters, and on railroads did not violate the 14th Amendment. Harlan argued that the purpose of the 14th Amendment was specifically to protect the rights of blacks, and that the Court's opinion was little more than "subtle and ingenious verbal criticism" designed to relegate blacks to a status without redress in law similar to what had been done in the Dred Scott decision. Before he was appointed to the Supreme Court by President Rutherford B. Hayes in 1877, Harlan had been a loyalist Democrat who served in the Union army during the Civil War. He became a Republican in the late 1860s and sat on the Court until his death in 1911. Harlan wrote more opinions (1,161) than any other justice in the history of the Court, and more dissenting opinions (316) than any previous justice on the bench. It is estimated that he participated in over 14,000 cases. This once anti-Lincoln Democrat ended his life committed to the need for a powerful Federal Government to care vigorously for human needs, especially in protecting civil rights.

Harlem Renaissance: The literary and artistic flowering that occurred in the 1920s in Manhattan's Harlem neighborhood, which had emerged as the cultural capital of black America. Central to it was the ideal of a "New Negro"--a term first used by Howard University professor Alain Locke in 1925--that emphasized race pride, self-reliance, and racial equality. The Harlem Renaissance encompassed the work of a wide array of novelists, poets, essayist, artists, and musicians. The poet Langston Hughes and the folklorist and novelist Zora Neale Hurston, for example, celebrated urban street life and the often-maligned rural folk culture of American blacks. The Crisis literary magazine published short stories, poems, and essays promoting the work of Hughes, Countee Cullen, Jean Toomer, and countless others. Although few African Americans read these literary masterpieces, many whites and blacks mingled together in black nightclubs in Harlem and in the South Side of Chicago to listen to a new kind of music called jazz, which had emerged in the South earlier in the century.

Most of these "black and tan" clubs employed black musicians and chorus girls. The Cotton Club of Harlem peddled illegal beer to rich white people who were entertained by the likes of Cab Calloway and Edward K. "Duke" Ellington. The chorus line was made up of tall, light skinned, African-American women dancers. Harlem's Savoy Ballroom played music for up to 4,000 dancers in a single evening. By the end of the decade, the blues, a genuinely black genre of music emanating from the Delta regions of Mississippi, supported a "race recording" industry, which sold tens of thousands of recordings in the 1930s. Its leading artist was Bessie Smith (1894-1937), known by her fans as the "Empress of the Blues." This 200 pound singer was the most popular singer in America in the 1920s, and her recordings of such hits as "Nobody Knows When You're Down and Out" and "Empty Bed Blues" exposed the raw nerves of African-American poverty and alienation during the Jim Crow era.

Harper, Frances Ella Watkins: (1825-1911) A writer, public speaker, and leader in the African-American Women's Movement. Born a free woman in Maryland, Harper was educated at the William Watkins Academy for blacks in Baltimore. At 25, she became the first woman professor at Union Seminary (later Wilberforce University) in Columbus, Ohio. Unable to return to Maryland because State law expelled all free blacks from the State in the 1850s, Harper moved to Philadelphia where she began writing poems and essays. In 1854, she took a job as a speaker with the Maine Anti-Slavery Society and traveled throughout the North delivering "fiery" speeches. Many of these speeches were published later in book form, reaching over 20 editions by 1870. In 1858, she staged a sit-in protesting segregated streetcars in Philadelphia and moved in with the wife of John Brown while he was awaiting execution for the uprising at Harper's Ferry.

She married Fenton Harper in 1860 and, after the war gained, a wide reputation for her newspaper articles, published books, and speaking engagements. Her novel, Iola Leroy (1892), one of the first novels published by an African American, presented a new image of black womanhood. It attacked the insulting image that whites held about the social character, low morality, and negative value of black women by depicting a virtuous female protagonist. Its central character is a well-educated, articulate, middle-class woman devoted to bettering her people. Thereafter, Harper became a leader in the African-American Women's Movement. Her speech at the World's Congress of Women in Chicago in 1893 set the agenda for African-American women's activism for the next generation. In that speech, she referred to the 1890s as the "Woman's Era," indicating the emergence of African-American women into the forefront of the drive for racial and gender equality.

Harper, Solomon: (1895-1980) An electrical engineer and prolific inventor from Poplar Grove who invented numerous patents related to train travel and military safety.

Harris, Abram Lincoln, Jr.: (1899-1963) An economist at Howard University who was in the forefront of African-American activism during the Great Depression and who worked to reorient the Civil Rights Movement to adopt and reflect economic and labor issues.

Harrison, William Henry: (1773-1841) elected the 9th President of the United States, Harrison died before finishing his first month in office in 1841. Born in 1773 in Virginia, Harrison began a long military career at the age of 18 when he joined the First Infantry of the United States Army. A decorated veteran of the War of 1812, he spent much of his military career fighting Native Americans in the former Northwest Territories. He served for a time as governor of the Indian Territory of the Northwest Territory from 1800 to 1912, and was responsible for opening Ohio and Indiana to white settlement. Most noted for his engagement of Indian forces under their leader Tecumseh, Harris won great fame in the War of 1812 by defeating Tecumseh and winning control of the Southwest. After retiring from military service, Harrison served in the House of Representatives and the Senate before being sent as the U. S. minister to Columbia. Considered a good candidate for running against President Andrew Jackson because of his military record, he rose in the Whig party and was nominated by the Whig party to be their candidate in 1840 for the presidency of the United States. This aristocratic, slave-owning Virginian was transformed in the campaign into a simple backwoods frontiersman. The campaign against the refined Martin Van Buren, vice president under Jackson, became known as the “Log Cabin and Hard Cider” campaign. After winning the election, Harrison contracted pneumonia and died on April 4, 1841, one month after assuming office.

Harris-Stowe State College: A school that the St. Louis Board of Education formed in 1955--as one of their steps to end segregation in the city following the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka decision--by combining city's two existing teacher's colleges: Harris Teachers College and Stowe Teachers College. Harris College, named for progressive Hegelian educator and superintendent of St. Louis schools, William Torrey Harris, originated in 1857 as a normal school for white students. It began offering in-service training for white teachers in 1906. In 1920, Harris became a four-year degree-granting institution. Stowe Teachers College, named for the abolitionist and novelist Harriet Beecher Stowe, was established in 1890 as a normal school for black students. Known as Sumner Normal School until 1929, it became a four-year institution in 1924. Harris-Stowe was incorporated into the Missouri State college and university system in 1979 and presently enrolls 1,850 students.

Hastie, William Henry: (1904-1976) Born in Knoxville, Hastie became the first African-American federal appeals judge. A graduate of Harvard Law, he worked for the NAACP and was a mentor and hero for scores of young teachers and African-American lawyers.

Havana, Cuba: Havana (La Habana) is the capital of Cuba, located on its northwest coast. Diego Velásquez de León established the city in 1514. Throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, English, Dutch, and French pirates attacked the town. The Diocese of Cuba, established in 1518, was responsible for Florida and Louisiana; many early Florida historical records are in Havana. Spanish settlers forced the native Ciboney and Taino tribes into slave labor. Disease and warfare led to the extinction of all Cuban natives by the beginning of the 1700s. Although the Spanish bought African slaves from the Portuguese beginning in the 1500s, larger numbers arrived in the 1700s to work their sugar plantations.

In 1762, the British captured Havana. When the Seven Years War (French and Indian War) ended in 1763, the fates of Cuba, Florida, and Louisiana became entwined. The British demanded and received Florida, while the Spanish salvaged control of Cuba; the French repaid the Spanish for their loss of Florida by giving them the Louisiana Territory. At the time of Florida’s transfer to British control in 1763, eight ships carried evacuating Spanish residents (including free blacks and the last Native Floridians) to Cuba. These Florida exiles established a new St. Augustine in Matanzas Province, Cuba. Between 1780 and 1866, Havana was the center of the Spanish slave trade. By 1827, half the residents of Cuba were African in origin and 40% of them slaves. Slavery was abolished in Cuba in 1886.

Hayes, Rutherford B.: (1822-1893) The 19th President of the United States, he was born in Ohio, graduated from Kenyon College, and earned a law degree from Harvard in 1845. Married to an ardent abolitionist, Lucy Ware Webb, the future president joined the Republican Party, defended captured runaway slaves, and served as the city solicitor on the eve of the Civil War. Hayes enlisted in the Union Army when the Civil War broke out, rising to the rank of major general. During the war, he won election to the U. S. Congress. Thereafter, Hayes supported the Radical Republicans and was elected Governor of Ohio in 1867 and in1869. He successfully ran again for governor after briefly retiring in 1875, and he thereafter emerged as the leading dark horse candidate for the presidency. His war record and his popularity in the North as a moderate Republican won him the nomination. In the election of 1876, the Democratic candidate, Samuel J. Tilden, lost to Hayes after Congress gave the disputed election returns in Florida, Louisiana, and South Carolina to the Republicans.

Hayes made his mark as a pragmatic president. He understood that northern popular opinion no longer supported Federal troops in the South or a continuation of Reconstruction--so he pulled all troops out of the region, which resulted in the collapse of the Republican hold on the two remaining states with Republican governors. As president, Hayes vetoed anti-Chinese legislation, defeated congressional efforts to pass laws limiting the voting rights of blacks, and refused to take over the railroads during the great railroad strike of 1877. Perhaps most importantly, Hayes introduced the merit system and pushed for civil service reform in the appointment of Federal jobholders, especially in the Post Office and the New York Customhouse. Keeping his promise to retire from office after one term, Hayes passed the rest of his life as a moderate reformer working on behalf of educating poor black and white children and in the interests of prison reform.

Herndon, Alonzo: (1858-1927) Born a slave, Alonzo Franklin Herndon, founder and president of Atlanta Life Insurance Company, became one of the first prosperous black entrepreneurs in America in the years following Reconstruction. A man of great economic and social leadership, he made a fortune and gave much of it back to Atlanta's African-American community.

Hill, Oliver: (1907 - ) Hill was an NACCP attorney who, alongside Thurgood Marshall and the NAACP, helped develop the legal challenge to segregation that led to the United States Supreme Court overturning of the decision in Plessy v. Ferguson.

Holiday, Billie: (1915-1959) Through her bluesy, deeply emotional interpretations of jazz standards, Billie Holiday is still considered by many to be the quintessential jazz singer of all time. Able to "turn a tune forty different ways," Holiday's dry timbre and behind-the-beat phrasing bought her a permanent place among all-time jazz greats. Born in 1915 as Eleanora Fagan to a 13- year-old mother, Sadie Fagan, and 15-year-old father, Clarence Holiday, Billie's early years are draped in rumor, revisionism, and poverty. As a little girl she scrubbed steps at the local brothel earning fifteen cents a day and hearing for the first time the music of Louis Armstrong and Bessie Smith. At the age of eleven she was raped by a neighbor and sent away to a school for Wayward Girls where she was treated harshly. In 1927, she came to New York with her mother and for a time worked as a prostitute for which she was arrested in 1928. In 1933, seeking to change her life, she sought work in a Harlem speakeasy as a dancer. She failed to get the job, but the manager asked her if she could sing. Legend has it that from that first song on, she brought the house down. Over the next few years she worked the New York jazz club circuit where her reputation for innovative and poignant singing spread. "Give me a song I can feel," she once said. Jazz producer John Hammond heard Holiday and when she was 20 started using her as a fill-in performer.

Through the 1930s and 1940s, she sang and recorded with jazz luminaries Benny Goodman, Teddy Wilson, Duke Ellington, Count Basie, Artie Shaw, and saxophonist Lester Young. Young bestowed her with the name "Lady Day," fitting for the singer who typically performed in a glamorous evening gown with a trademark gardenia in her hair. Her 1939 recording of "Strange Fruit" a haunting, disturbing song about lynching brought her a national audience. "Southern trees bear a strange fruit/Blood on the leaves and blood at the root/Black bodies swingin' in the southern breeze/Strange fruit hangin' from the poplar trees..." After the song's success, many came to see Holiday as a voice for black Americans.

As a black performer in Jim Crow America, Holiday was not immune to the racial prejudice and segregationist laws to which all African Americans of the era were subjected. Not permitted to sit at the bar in the club she performed in, forced to use back entrances and freight elevators, made national touring a personal nightmare. Staying chiefly in New York City, her appearances in different night clubs continued to heighten her professional reputation while her personal life tumbled into a precipitous decline. Her second husband, trumpeter Joe Guy, was a heroin user and introduced her to hard-line drug use. She soon became addicted. In spite of attempts to rehabilitate herself, in 1947 she was arrested and served time in jail for narcotics possession after which federal agents were never far behind her. The government denied her a cabaret card (a permit for performing in night clubs), effectively cutting off her largest source of revenue. Holiday continued to record and perform in larger venues in New York and traveled to Europe but her personal troubles mounted. Several more arrests followed, including one that took place when Holiday was in the final stages of a fatal drug-related kidney disease. She died on July 17, 1959 in New York at age 44.

From 1933 to 1942, Holiday recorded for Columbia Records. From 1944 to 1950, she recorded with Decca Records, 1952-1957 with Verve Records. Most of her recordings have been reissued.

Holtzclaw, William: (187?-1943) Educated at Tuskegee Institute, he was a life-long follower of Booker T. Washington, establishing Utica Normal and Industrial Institute in Raymond, Mississippi, in 1902, modeled on the Tuskegee approach to education for African Americans. Holtzclaw remained as head of Utica until the 1940s, when his son, William, took charge of the school. In 1915, Holtzclaw authored The Black Man's Burden, which included an introduction by Booker T. Washington. By 1917, the school enrolled 317 pupils, of which 203 were female. Courses were divided into four levels: elementary, secondary, industrial, and agricultural. Most of the students studied at the elementary level, and all took principally industrial and agricultural courses.

Hope, John: (1868-1936) An educator and early 20th century civil rights leader, who served as President of Atlanta University and was a founder of the Niagara Movement. Born on June 2, 1868, near the beginning of Reconstruction, in Augusta, Georgia, John Hope was one of five children of mixed race parents. His father, James Hope, was a native Scotsman who moved to the U.S. in 1817 and eventually ended up in Augusta, Georgia. Hope's mother, Fanny Butts, was a black woman. The two probably never married since interracial marriage was illegal in most places at the time. Hope's father died when John was eight years old. At age ten, John went to work for a lawyer earning $4.00 per month. After completing 8th grade at age 13, he left school and went to work for a black man who owned a restaurant business in Augusta. Rev. John Dart, a local pastor, challenged John Hope to return to school, and in 1886, Hope entered Worcester Academy in Massachusetts. In 1890, he entered Brown University in Rhode Island where he focused on studying philosophy and graduated with honors in June of 1894. Hope then accepted a teaching job at Roger Williams University in Nashville, Tennessee, where he taught natural sciences, Greek, and Latin. He married Lugenia Burns, whom he had met during his college years, in December of 1897.

In the spring of 1898, John Hope accepted a position at Atlanta Baptist College where he became close friends with W.E.B. Du Bois and other black academic professors. Hope worked along with Du Bois for the right to a liberal--not just vocational--education for black people. In 1906, Hope became acting President of Atlanta Baptist College and was named the first black President of a Baptist School a year later. During this time, he participated in the Niagara Movement. Hope was able to visit his father's homeland of Langholm, Scotland, and other parts of Europe in 1912. The next year, Atlanta Baptist College was renamed Morehouse College. Hope, along with his assistants, brought an innovative curriculum to the school. In 1918, Hope once again went to Europe; this time as a YMCA representative to help improve conditions for black soldiers in World War I.

In 1929, Atlanta's black institutions joined together to form the Atlanta University System, and Hope was appointed as its President. The following year, he received the Harmon Award for distinguished achievement in education. Hope died in Atlanta on February 19, 1936, of pneumonia.

Other achievements of note:
President of National Association of Teachers in Colored Schools
Advisory Board Member of NAACP
Executive Committee Member of National Urban League
Founder and President of the Commission on Interracial Cooperation
Member of Phi Beta Kappa

This Encyclopedia Biography was submitted by Kathryn Sansbury, a social studies and history teacher at Wake Forest-Rolesville High School in North Carolina.
John Hope Lesson Activity Suggestions.

Hope, Lugenia: (1871-1947) Married to the educator John Hope, Lugenia worked as a leader in social service programs and was an active member of the National Council of Negro Women and the Southern Women's Conference Against Lynching.

Hope, Lugenia Burns: (1871-1947) In her youth, Lugenia Burns worked in several charitable organizations and settlement houses. She attended the Chicago Art Institute, the Chicago School of Design, and the Chicago Business College. In 1897 she married John Hope, the first president of Atlanta University. For over 30 years she worked in various community service and civil rights organizations in Atlanta. She also worked with the Neighborhood Union, Atlanta's first female-operated social welfare agency and founded a social settlement.

During World War I, Lugenia Hope worked with the YWCA's War Work Council and eventually with Hostess Houses providing services and recreation to African-American and Jewish soldiers. Hope was a founding member of the National Association of Colored Women's Clubs and the Atlanta NAACP's first vice president. Her son, John Hope Franklin is the preeminent black historian in the nation. She died in 1947 in Nashville, Tennessee.

Hopkins, Pauline. E.: (1859-1930) Beginning formal writing at an early age, Pauline Allen gained quick recognition for her work and her first play, Slaves Escape or The Underground Railroad. From 1900-1904 she served as the editor-in-chief for the Colored American Magazine. Her first novel, Contending Forces was published in 1900. Thereafter she wrote numerous novels, short stories, and biographical articles. As editor-in-chief of the Colored American Magazine she clashed with male colleagues who resented her authority as a woman and also with many of the leading black intellectuals in the nation, including Booker T. Washington. When Washington gained control of the paper in 1904, he ousted Hopkins. She then launched her own publishing company and a new magazine, in 1915, called the New Era. This radical magazine failed after only two issues. Although her literary production, h declined significantly after 1905, her voice was never silenced and she was one of the most powerful black women in the arts and in political discourse in the first two decades of the century. Pauline Hopkins died in Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1930. At the time she was employed as a stenographer at MIT.

Hop'n johns: Traditional West African dish of black-eyed peas and rice cooked together. It is common in black southern cuisine.

Horne, Lena: (1917 - ) After a rather turbulent youth, Lena Horne moved to New York City in the 1930s and worked as a chorus line girl in Harlem's famous Cotton Club. Although gaining entrance to professional singing proved difficult for her, she became the first African American to tour with an all white band in 1940. After entering a film career as a singer and touring to promote her films, she became one of the top nightclub and theater attractions in the United States.

During World War II, Lena Horne caused quite a stir while entertaining troops, when she refused to sing when German POWs were seated in front of segregated African-American troops. Following the war, she continued her singing and film careers, as well as a career on Broadway in New York. Perhaps her greatest accomplishment was her show: Lena Horne: The Lady and Her Music. Lena Horne remains an active member of the NAACP, the Urban League, and the National Council of Negro Women.

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